Relative pronouns and relative clauses

INDEX


Introduction to relative clauses
    A clause (= proposición) is one of the parts of a compound sentence.

    A relative clause is a subordinate clause which begins with a relative pronoun. In the previous sentence, the relative clause is "which begins with a relative pronoun", and the relative pronoun is "which".

    Consider the following sentence:

      A relative clause is formed by two simple sentences.
      The two simple sentences share a common element.

    We could use an ordinary subject or object pronoun to avoid repeating the common element:

      A relative clause is formed by two simple sentences.
      They share a common element.

    However, with personal pronouns it is sometimes difficult to identify who or what they refer to:

      My sister and her friend Julie were angry at each other because she had insulted her.
      (Who insulted whom?)

    By using a relative clause it is clear who did what, because the relative pronoun usually comes immediately after its antecedent (the person or thing that it refers to):

      My sister and her friend Julie, who had insulted her, were angry at each other.
      My sister and her friend Julie, whom she had insulted, were angry at each other.

    In the first example, "who" is the subject (Julie insulted my sister).
    In the second one, "whom" is the object (Julie was insulted by my sister).

    Now look at the following sentence — it is formed by three simple sentences which share some common elements:

    Relative pronouns, which are used to avoid repetition, link two sentences that have one element in common.

    By using WHICH we avoid repeating "relative pronouns"; by using "THAT" we avoid repeating "the two sentences":

    Relative pronouns link two sentences.
    Relative pronouns are used to avoid repetition.
    The two sentences have one element in common.


How do relative clauses work?
    Look at these two sentences:

    I have a dog. My dog is very friendly.

    The common element in both sentences is "a dog", which we can replace with a relative pronoun:

    I have a dog which is very friendly.

    Here is another example:

    Bring me the newspaper, please. I bought it this morning.
    Bring me the newspaper which I bought this morning, please.

    The relative pronoun refers to a noun phrase (= sintagma nominal), which is usually a noun preceded by an article, or a pronoun like "someone", "everything", etc.

    The relative pronoun usually appears right after the noun or pronoun to which it refers (the antecedent), although sometimes it can be preceded by a preposition, as in the first sentence of this paragraph. The preposition can also appear at the end (the same as in questions):

    The relative pronoun usually appears right after the noun or pronoun which it refers to.

    Relative clauses in English work more or less the same as in Spanish, but there are two important differences (and another one which is not so important:

    1. If there isn't a comma or a preposition before the relative pronoun, then "which" can be replaced with "that", especially for things and animals:

      After a comma. → I have had my dog, which is very friendly, since I was five years old.
      After a preposition → Bring me the newspaper about which I was talking, please.
      I have a dog that/which is very friendly.
      Bring me the newspaper that/which I bought this morning, please.

      In contrast ,"who", which is normally used for people, is not so often replaced by "that":

      There are some people that are never happy.
      I know someone that can play the trumpet and the piano.

      Remember: if there is a comma or a preposition before the relative pronoun, then we must not use "that", only "who" (for people) or "which" (for things or animals).


    2. When the relative pronoun is NOT the subject of the relative clause, it is often omitted:

      There are some people (that) I can't stand.
      I know someone (that) you have played the piano with.

      To check whether the relative pronoun can be omitted, look for a subject after the relative pronoun and before the next verb: if there isn't one (the verb comes immediately after the relative pronoun), then the relative pronoun is its subject, and it cannot be omitted:

      I know someone who/that has played the piano for the queen.

    3. When the antecedent is preceded by a preposition, that preposition can be moved to the end of the sentence (the same as in questions), and then the relative pronoun is usually omitted, especially in spoken English:

      There is something about which I want to talk to you.
      There is something that I want to talk to you about.
      There is something I want to talk to you about.

      This is especially frequent when the relative pronoun is "whom", which is a bit too formal for many people:

      He is a man with whom I would never do business.
      He is a man whom I would never do business with.
      He is a man I would never do business with.

      "Whom" is also usually omitted when it is the direct object:

      He is a man whom/that you can trust.
      He is a man you can trust.


Relative pronouns

    The most common relative pronouns are:

  • THAT (= que)

    • We use THAT to refer to a thing or a person that we have mentioned before.

    Examples:
    The notebook that I bought yesterday was very cheap.
    The boys that are playing football over there have a good technique.

  • WHICH (= que)

    • We use WHICH to refer to a thing which we have mentioned before.

    Examples:
    The book which you lent me is on that table.
    The programme which starts at half past ten tonight will probably be very interesting.

    WHICH is also often used in spoken English to refer to a whole sentence that we have said before, and then it is translated as "lo cual":

    He doesn't like Mexican food, which is too spicy for him. (which = Mexican food, so the sentence means "Mexican food is too spicy for him.")

    He doesn't like French food, which is a pity. (which = He doesn't like French food, so the sentence means "It is a pity that he doesn't like French food.")

    We have an exam tomorrow, which means I have to revise all evening.

  • WHO (= que)

    • We use WHO to refer to a person who has been mentioned before.
    The relative pronoun WHO is usually the subject of the relative clause, that is, it comes immediately before the verb.

    Examples:
    The teacher who sent us this homework is very strict.
    "The king who lost his crown" is a song by ABBA.

  • WHOSE (= cuyo, /-a, /-os, /-as)

    • We use WHOSE when we are referring to something which belongs to someone, or to a person who is someone's relative, friend, etc. (it is not normally used with things).

    Examples:
    Beethoven was a genius whose deafness did not stop him from composing.
    Julius Caesar was an excellent general whose soldiers conquered many countries.

  • WHOM (= al que, a la que, a los que, a las que, a quien, a quienes,...)

    • In formal English we use WHOM instead of WHO to refer to a person whom we have mentioned before, when WHOM realises the function of the direct or indirect object, or when it comes after a preposition.

    Notice the difference between the following two examples:

    007 was the agent whom they had to kill. ("Whom" is the direct object)
    007 was the agent who had to kill them. ("Who" is the subject)

    Other examples:

    That is the journalist for whom they brought the information.
    Dr Robinson is the scientist to whom I talked.
    That's the man about whom I have told you.
    I don't like that boy with whom you are going out.

    In spoken English we usually avoid using WHOM, which is considered very formal, by omitting it and moving the preposition, if there is one, after the verb, or simply by using "THAT":

    That is the journalist they brought the information for.
    Dr Robinson is the scientist I talked to.
    I don't like that boy you are going out with.
    That's the man (that) I have told you about.
    007 was the agent (that) they had to kill.

    Notice that if "whom" comes after a comma, or if it has an interrogative function, it cannot be ommitted:

    The sheriff, whom the bandits feared, was away.
    Do not ask for whom the bells toll.
    Do not ask who the bells toll for.

    (In theory, that last example should be "Do not ask whom the bells toll for", but in practice very few English speakers will say it that way, or ask a question like "Whom are you looking for?" or "Whom have they fired?").


Relative adverbs

    Some wh- words can also be relative adverbs:

  • WHERE (= donde / en el que / en la que / en los que / en las que)

    • WHERE is a relative adverb when it means "in/at/on which", referring to a place.

    Examples:
    London, where my cousin works, is a very expensive city.

    That's the school where I study.
    Those are the countries where there is a war.

  • WHEN (= cuando / en el que / en la que / en los que / en las que)

    • WHEN is a relative adverb when it means "in/at/on which", referring to a time.

    Examples:
    August, when most people go on holiday, is the high season in Spain.
    June's the month when we have the final exams.
    The first days of the winter, when it usually rains, it is dangerous to drive in this area.

  • WHY (= por lo que)

    • WHY is a relative adverb when it means "the reason for which", referring to the cause of something.

    Examples:
    Some people still won't believe that climate change is the reason why natural disasters have increased so much in the last few decades.
    It's a secret, that's (the reason) why I can't tell you.
    I was late, that's why the teacher told me off.



Types of relative clauses

    Non-defining relative clauses

  • They provide additional information, but they are not necessary.
  • They are written between commas.
  • We cannot omit the relative pronoun.
  • We cannot use THAT instead of WHICH (for things) or WHO (for people).

    Examples:
    London, which is the capital of Great Britain, is a huge city.
    My grandmother, who was born in 1901, lived in a house with a garden.
    Doménicos Theotocópoulos, whom they called El Greco, was of Greek origin but Spanish citizenship.
    M. C. Escher, whose geometrical pictures are fascinating, was born in 1898.

    Defining relative clauses

  • They are necessary, and the sentence is incomplete without them, because they are used to identify or specify the person or thing that we are talking about.
  • They are written without commas.
  • We can omit the relative pronoun when it is not the subject and it does not come after a preposition.
  • We can replace WHO and WHICH with THAT.

    Examples:
    My father was the person who taught me to ride a bike.
    The man that is under arrest is a suspected bank robber.
    The girl (whom) I met at the party was called Susan.

    Why are commas so important?

    Compare these examples:

    The boys, who had an exam the following day, were studying.
    The boys who had an exam the following day were studying.

    • In the first one, the relative clause only adds additional information: we already know which boys we are talking about, and all of them have an exam the following day.

    • In the second one, the relative clause is essential to identify the group of boys (that) we are talking about (the ones who had an exam the following day).


Information focus
    Here is an example of how new information is communicated by means of relative clauses:

    My brother Bob had an accident last week. He is an excellent truck driver.

  • Non-defining (you know Bob):

      Known information: Bob is one of my brothers.
      New information: Bob had an accident last week.
      Additional information: He is an excellent truck driver.

    • My brother Bob, who is an excellent truck driver, had an accident last week.

      Known information: Bob is one of my brothers.
      New information: Bob is an excellent truck driver.
      Additional information: Bob had an accident last week.

    • My brother Bob, who had an accident last week, is an excellent truck driver.

  • Defining (you didn't know who Bob is):

      Known information:  A  truck driver had an accident last week.
      New information: My brother Bob is  that  driver.

    •  The  truck driver who had an accident last week is my brother Bob.

      Known information: My brother Bob is  a  truck driver.
      New information:  He  had an accident last week.

    • My brother Bob is  the  truck driver who had an accident last week.


Guided practice

    Study these solved exercises

    (Drag the mouse cursor between the square brackets to see the correct answer).

  • If both sentences contain equally important information, we normally use a non-defining relative clause:

    Quartz occupies the fourth place in Mohs' scale of mineral hardness.
    It vibrates when an electric current goes through it.
    [Quartz, which vibrates when an electric current goes through it, occupies the fourth place in Mohs' scale of mineral hardness.]
    [Quartz, which occupies the fourth place in Mohs' scale of mineral hardness, vibrates when an electric current goes through it.]
    [When an electric current goes through quartz, which occupies the fourth place in Mohs' scale of mineral hardness, it vibrates.]
    (The last possibility is the least likely).

    In general, we interrupt the sentence which is longer or which has the most important information, so that this information will come at the end:

    Quartz, which is often white, can also be completely transparent.

  • If one of the sentences is necessary to identify the person, object or place, we must use a defining relative clause:

    I met a man yesterday. He works as a clown in the circus.
    [The man (whom) I met yesterday works as a clown in the circus.]
    [Yesterday I met a man who works as a clown in the circus.]

    (The reason why "yesterday" comes at the beginning in the second sentence is to avoid separating the relative pronoun from its antecedent: I met a man yesterday who works as a clown in the circus.

  • When the common element is at the end of one sentence (it is the direct object) and at the beginning of the other (it is the subject), simply replace the subject of the second sentence with a relative pronoun:

    I don't like some people. They never help you.
    [I don't like people who/that never help you.]

    I must buy more tea. It is running out.
    [I must buy more tea, which is running out.]

  • If the common element is the subject of the first sentence and the object of the second, try changing the order of the sentences first. The relative pronoun almost always appears right after its antecedent (the noun or pronoun it refers to):

    Some films have a happy ending. She prefers them.
    She prefers some films. They have a happy ending.
    [She prefers (those) films which have a happy ending.]
    [The films which she prefers have a happy ending.]
    ---> defining relative clauses (we didn't know which type of films she likes).

    That man works in my school. I was talking to him last week.
    [I was talking to that man, who works in my school, last week.]
    [Last week I was talking to that man, who works in my school.]
    [That man, whom I was talking to last week, works in my school.]
    ---> non-defining relative clauses (we know who "that man" refers to).

  • When one of the sentences has the verb BE, both the subject and the complement of the subject may be the element in common with the other sentence, so there are several possibilities, and you can choose how to arrange the information:

    I often play football with that boy.
    He is my cousin.
    [I often play football with that boy, who is my cousin.]
    [I often play football with my cousin, who is that boy.]
    [That boy, whom I often play football with, is my cousin.]
    [My cousin, whom I often play football with, is that boy.]

    This variation is not possible:
    * That boy, who is my cousin, I often play football with.